what countries signed the antarctic treaty

Parties - at's It is the International Whaling Commission that therefore deals with whale issues in the Southern Ocean. Thousands of species, such as krill, feed on the plankton. As for the question of who owns Antarctica, the short answer is no-one. The Antarctic Treaty is an agreement signed by 54 countries stating that the continent of Antarctica should only be used for peaceful, scientific purposes. Countries and historians still debate who first saw the continent around 1820. In some cases where any of these may have to occur for the purposes of scientific investigation, or to preserve the species, permits must be issued by members of the Antarctic Treaty, and researchers must be sure to limit the activity to affect as few individuals as possible. In addition, the US and Russia reserve the right to make a claim in the future. Protection of the Antarctic environment and ecosystems is in the interest of humankind as a whole. Ice shelves are floating sheets of ice that are connected to the continent. Key documents of the Antarctic Treaty System. Once a year, cargo ships bring more than fiv million kilograms (11 million pounds) of equipment and supplies, ranging from trucks and tractors to dry and frozen foods, to scientific instruments. Biology, Earth Science, Geology, Oceanography, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography, The continent of Antarctica makes up most of the Antarctic region. ), 28,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est. Send as many as you want for FREE. The flags displayed at the Dumont dUrville station in Terre Adlie in January 2014 attest to the presence of researchers of various nationalities working together. Figure 1. The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991); the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings operate by consensus (not by vote) of all consultative parties at annual Treaty meetings; by January 2022, there were 54 treaty member nations: 29 consultative and 25 non-consultative; consultative (decision-making) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 22 non-claimant nations; the US and Russia have reserved the right to make claims; the US does not recognize the claims of others; Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations; measures adopted at these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; the years in parentheses indicate when a consultative member-nation acceded to the Treaty and when it was accepted as a consultative member, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory; claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, NZ, Norway, and the UK; nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1975/1983), Bulgaria (1978/1998), China (1983/1985), Czechia (1962/2014), Ecuador (1987/1990), Finland (1984/1989), Germany (1979/1981), India (1983/1983), Italy (1981/1987), Japan, South Korea (1986/1989), Netherlands (1967/1990), Peru (1981/1989), Poland (1961/1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1982/1988), Sweden (1984/1988), Ukraine (1992/2004), Uruguay (1980/1985), and the US; non-consultative members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Belarus (2006), Canada (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), Iceland (2015), Kazakhstan (2015), North Korea (1987), Malaysia (2011), Monaco (2008), Mongolia (2015), Pakistan (2012), Papua New Guinea (1981), Portugal (2010), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1962/1993), Slovenia (2019), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1996), and Venezuela (1999); note - Czechoslovakia acceded to the Treaty in 1962 and separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993; Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the International Court of Justice; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations; other agreements - some 200 measures adopted at treaty consultative meetings and approved by governments; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998; this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment and includes five annexes that have entered into force: 1) environmental impact assessment, 2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, 5) area protection and management; a sixth annex addressing liability arising from environmental emergencies has yet to enter into force; the Protocol prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research; a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Antarctica is administered through annual meetings - known as Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings - which include consultative member nations, non-consultative member nations, observer organizations, and expert organizations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; more generally, the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a number of relevant legal instruments and procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty; note - US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extraterritoriality; some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. Lesser Antarctica, in fact, is part of the Ring of Fire, a tectonically active area around the Pacific Ocean. . Geographers map the surface of the worlds coldest and most isolated continent. This is an Antarctica region that covers a landmass of 2.7 million square kilometers. Without the aid of the oceans around Antarctica, Earths waters would not circulate in a balanced and efficient manner.Flora and FaunaLichens, mosses, and terrestrial algae are among the few species of vegetation that grow in Antarctica. Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. Its objectives are simple yet unique in international relations. In 2009, the ATCM held meetings in New Zealand to discuss the impact of tourism on the Antarctic environment. The region covers 2,000 square kilometers and consists of ice-free land along the coastal areas. As of 2019, there are currently 54 recognized countries that participate in the governance of the Antarctic Treaty. These regions have different geologies.Greater Antarctica, or East Antarctica, is composed of older, igneous and metamorphic rocks. )from consumed natural gas: 0 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est. The leopard seal is one of the most aggressive of all marine predators. Antarctica - National Geographic Society A number of countries have set up a range of year-round and seasonal stations, camps, and refuges to support scientific research in Antarctica. There are also over 20 species of liverworts and mosses and 30 species of lichens. Precipitation in the Antarctic is hard to measure. [Source: Antarctic Treaty Secretariat: : http://www.ats.aq/documents/ATCM35/att/ATCM35_att069_e.pdf]In order to ensure compliance with the rules of the Antarctic Treaty and the Madrid Protocol, signatory countries may appoint observers who have free access at any time to stations and their facilities, as well as to ships and aircraft travelling to Antarctica. )exports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. The Antarctic Treaty system is a global achievement and has been a hallmark of international cooperation for more than 50 years. Along with the IGY, the Antarctic Treaty symbolized global understanding and exchange during a period of intense division and secrecy.Many important documents have been added to the Antarctic Treaty. Upwelling allows phytoplankton and algae to flourish. There are no countries in Antarctica. If they are not, then the problems facing the population must be addressed. Figure 15. While the original signatories represented the 12 countries that were active in and around Antarctica between 1957 and 1958 (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand,. In France, the then Prime Minister, Michel Rocard, joined the Australian position. Antarctica was never colonized due to the harsh climate and conditions, so the land remained open and relatively free from territorial disputes. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve nations that had been active during the IGY (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States and USSR). By 1959, 12 countries came together to create the 1959 Antarctica Treaty: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the U.S.S.R. (Russia), the United Kingdom, and the United States. Learn more The Antarctic Treaty Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica. It was officially enacted in 1998, and since then, revisions have been added to the protocol to better specify its purposes, or extend its reach. The ACTM recommended that treaty-states develop energy-efficient practices that reduce the carbon footprint of activities in Antarctica and cut fossil fuel use from research stations, vessels, ground transportation, and aircraft.The Antarctic has become a symbol of climate change. Some activities will be limited to meet specific conservation, habitat protection, ecosystem monitoring and fisheries management objectives (Figure 16). vThe United States, Peru, Russia, and South Africa have all reserved their right to claim territory in the future. Not all of the participatory countries are actively involved in research on the continent, however. Edwin ZACCAI, Doctor in environmental sciences, civil engineer physicist and graduate in philosophy. First, only peaceful activities are allowed in Antarctica. The articles in the Encyclopedia of the Environment are made available under the terms of the Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license, which authorizes reproduction subject to: citing the source, not making commercial use of them, sharing identical initial conditions, reproducing at each reuse or distribution the mention of this Creative Commons BY-NC-SA license. Glacial ice moves from the continents interior to these lower-elevation ice shelves at rates of 10 to 1,000 meters (33 to 32,808 feet) per year.Antarctica has a number of mountain summits, including the Transantarctic Mountains, which divide the continent into eastern and western regions. crater rim of Mount Erebus, the Earth's southernmost active volcano. The Antarctic Peninsula, for example, is probably, along with the Arctic, the region of the world where warming is most sensitive: between 2 and 4C over the past 50 years. The ATCM continues to address both issues.Antarctic tourism has grown substantially in the last decade, with roughly 40,000 visitors coming to the region in 2010. If you have questions about licensing content on this page, please contact ngimagecollection@natgeo.com for more information and to obtain a license. This was declared by the Treaty nations in the preamble to the historic Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty signed in Madrid in 1991 and entering into force in early 1998. National Geographic Headquarters 1145 17th Street NW Washington, DC 20036. )proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est. )consumption: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. As such, food plays an important role in providing variety to residents like those at Davis Station.Food supplies are, however, very limited. Perhaps the most notable is the 1991 Madrid Protocol. The surveys of invertebrates in the region have shown the presence of springtails, tardigrades, and nematodes. They were mainly hunted for their fur. These countries agreed to manage the location only with peace, and as a place for scientific research where ideas were shared amongst each other. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. Shackletons team survived for roughly four months on the ice by setting up makeshift camps. Australia was one of 12 original Parties to the Antarctic Treaty. These patterns create a strong wind pattern called the "polar vortex." )percent of population: 100% (2021 est. The area of coverage this pertains to is anything below 60 S latitude. In 2009, the so-called Antarctic Treaty turned fifty years old. Although Antarctica is a continent, there is no official country within the landmass. It regulates an entire continent with no local population. )refined petroleum consumption: 100 bbl/day (2019 est. Although some of the crew sustained injuries, they all survived.The journey of the Endurance expedition symbolizes the Heroic Age, a time of extreme sacrifice and bravery in the name of exploration and discovery. Antarctica truly is like nowhere else on Earth. There have been few scientific studies conducted in the area. Originally, there were twelve countries that signed the Antarctic Treaty; however, as of 2022, there are 50 nations representing two-thirds of the population in the treaty, according to the National Science Foundation (NSF). This region is prone to katabatic winds, which drive sea ice away from the coastline. In 1982 the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) was established with the objective of conserving Antarctic . [Source: By Uwe Kils I am willing to give the image in 1700 resolution to Wikipedia Uwe Kils[CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], via Wikimedia Commons]If the exploitation of mineral resources is prohibited, Antarctica has other resources currently exploited: marine living resources. Following a successful research program, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) established the Special Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) in 1958 to coordinate Antarctic research among nations. Marine biologists study the behavior of whales, seals, and squid. The CPE meets annually, in parallel with the RCTA (Figure 11). Aurora would sail to the Ross Sea and deposit supplies. How Does the Antarctic Treaty Protect Antarctica? - Treehugger Along the coast in the winter, temperatures range from -22F to 14F (-30C to -10C) and hover around 32F (0C) during summers. CCAMLR then continued its work to propose the classification of other MPAs. Figure 2. Residents live and work closely together in facilities and outdoor environments that are often very monotonous. )crude oil estimated reserves: 0 barrels (2021 est. Fresh produce adds variety and nutrition to Antarctic meals. Countries in Antarctica 2023 - World Population Review While France laid claim to a portion of the continent in 1840, the majority of claims wouldn't come until the early-to-mid 1900s, courtesy of the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Norway, Australia, Chile, Argentina, and Germany. Each team used different methods, with drastically different levels of success. [Source: By Bureau of Engraving and Printing. [Source: Peter Convey, British Antarctic Survey]Several other international organizations or non-governmental organizations may be invited to provide technical or scientific advice as experts. )transmission/distribution losses: 0 kWh (2019 est. National Geographic Society is a 501 (c)(3) organization. Amundsens team set out from the Bay of Whales in the Ross Sea on October 19, while Scott set out from Ross Island on November 1. The Antarctic Treaty Explained - British Antarctic Survey If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media. The Antarctic Convergence is an uneven line of latitude where cold, northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the worlds oceans. Antarctica is a continent located at the furthest southern reaches of the globe. ), production: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. Astronomers make observations from Antarcticas interior because it offers the clearest view of space from Earth. One year after its adoption, Australia refused to ratify this convention, which opened the door to the exploitation of Antarctic mineral resources. Who Owns Antarctica? The Story Of The Antarctic Treaty - Forbes Several related agreements have been entered into over the years. The waters surrounding Antarctica are relatively deep, reaching 4,000 to 5,000 meters (13,123 to 16,404 feet) in depth.ClimateAntarctica has an extremely cold, dry climate. Officials worked closely with the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) to establish better practices that would reduce the carbon footprint and environmental impact of tour ships. )imports: 0 metric tons (2020 est. 2. According to the IPCC, the resulting acceleration in the flow of land glaciers is likely to significantly increase the contribution of the 6th continent to global sea level rise in the coming years. Scientists took advantage of the situation to obtain broad support for scientific programs on the continent. Antarctic Treaty, (Dec. 1, 1959), agreement signed by 12 nations, in which the Antarctic continent was made a demilitarized zone to be preserved for scientific research. He or she must make sure to use all commodities in such a way that is both creative and sustainable. Some of these territories overlap. This is a group of islands situated in the Southern Ocean 604 kilometers north of the Antarctic Peninsula. In particular, it gives native penguins and other animals the status of specially protected species, and explains that they cannot be removed, injured, killed, or disrupted by human activity (such as by motorized vehicles or pollution of the environment from waste). Ever since the continent was first spotted sometime in the 19th-century, polar explorers from several countries made claims on territories in and around Antarctica. Krill, at the base of the marine animal food chain in the Southern Ocean, is increasingly being fished, mainly for use as fish farm food. However, seven different countries have claimed territory in Antarctica. Another 21 nations have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Austria, Belarus, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Denmark, Estonia, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Malaysia, Monaco, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and Venezuela. The Environmental Protocol set forth the recognition of Antarctica as a nature reserve, and protects the natural resources and native species of the area. These include regulations and restrictions on: numbers of people ashore; planned activities; wildlife watching; pre- and post-visit activity reporting; passenger, crew, and staff briefings; and emergency medical-evacuation plans. , Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty, 2019, Email your favorite people a positive message. They even put a meteorological station in the region. Lesser Antarctica, or West Antarctica, is made up of younger, volcanic and sedimentary rock. )imports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. It confirmed the continent as a site of common scientific interest, established freedom of research and banned military activity. More Meetings Upcoming Meetings ATCM XLV - CEP XXV Helsinki, Finland Some of the most recent additions to the Environmental Protocol that have beneficial consequences for native penguins include: guidelines for reducing plastic pollution in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean (held in Prague in 2019), a non-native species manual (created in Santiago in 2016), identifying important bird areas in Antarctica (at a gathering in Sofia in 2015), meeting of experts on climate change (conducted in Baltimore in 2009), and many more in between those years, or before. the Berthelot Islands off the Antarctic peninsula. )from petroleum and other liquids: 28,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est. The Antarctic Treaty is a document comprised of 14 articles outlining laws about how to govern Antarctica, and was originally signed into agreement in 1959 (but officially enacted in 1961) by 12 different countries. China signed the Antarctic Treaty in 1983 and became a Treaty Consultative Party in 1985. Its thickness and, Denis FABRE, Professor Emeritus of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Mtiers de Paris (CNAM), Construction & Energtique Team (ICENER), As true icons of mountain regions, glaciers are major tools for detecting climate change. In other words, it does not ask the 7 possessed countries to renounce their claims, but it requires them not to mention them. Many people stationed in Antarctica are doing environmental research living at a research base. The southernmost continent on Earth, Antarctica is a long way from anywhere. Abstract. It encourages scientific cooperation through exchanges of researchers and the free provision of scientific results (Articles II and III). Measures, Decisions, and Resolutions adopted at Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings, 3. Seven of the original 12 signatories had previous territorial claims. Similarly, any nuclear explosion is prohibited, as well as the disposal of radioactive waste in this region (Article V). Antarctica is a unique continent in that it does not have a native human population. It confirmed the continent as a site of common . These cookies do not store any personal information. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Ice sheet growth mainly occurs at the coastal ice shelves, primarily the Ross Ice Shelf and the Ronne Ice Shelf. Twelve nations have joined the original 12 in becoming consultative parties: Brazil, China, Finland, Germany, India, Italy, Peru, Poland, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, and Uruguay. )note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North America, and South America, but larger than Australia and the subcontinent of Europe, slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US, 0 note: see entry on Disputes - international, Australia, Chile, and Argentina claim Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) rights or similar over 200 nm extensions seaward from their continental claims, but like the claims themselves, these zones are not accepted by other countries; 22 of 29 Antarctic Treaty consultative parties have made no claims to Antarctic territory, although Russia and the United States have reserved the right to do so, and no country can make a new claim; also see the Disputes - international entry, the coldest, windiest, and driest continent on Earth; severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing; summers characterized by continuous daylight, while winters bring continuous darkness; persistent high pressure over the interior brings dry, subsiding air that results in very little cloud cover, about 99% thick continental ice sheet and 1% barren rock, with average elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 m; mountain ranges up to nearly 5,000 m; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land, Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent, highest point: Vinson Massif 4,892 mlowest point: Denman Glacier more than -3,500 m (-11,500 ft) below sea levelmean elevation: 2,300 mnote: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Denman Glacier; at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under seawater, iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small noncommercial quantities; mineral exploitation except for scientific research is banned by the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty; krill, icefish, toothfish, and crab have been taken by commercial fisheries, which are managed through the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Living Marine Resources (CCAMLR), katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; large icebergs may calve from ice shelfvolcanism: volcanic activity on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak, the coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the Equator in an equivalent period mostly uninhabitable, 99% of the land area is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, the largest single mass of ice on earth covering an area of 14 million sq km (5.4 million sq mi) and containing 26.5 million cu km (6.4 million cu mi) of ice (this is almost 62% of all of the world's fresh water); if all this ice were converted to liquid water, one estimate is that it would be sufficient to raise the height of the world's oceans by 58 m (190 ft), no indigenous inhabitants, but there are both year-round and summer-only staffed research stationsnote: 54 countries have signed the 1959 Antarctic Treaty; 30 of those operate through their National Antarctic Program a number of seasonal-only (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty); the population engaging in and supporting science or managing and protecting the Antarctic region varies from approximately 5,000 in summer to 1,100 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel, including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research, are present in the waters of the treaty regionas of 2017, peak summer (December-February) maximum capacity in scientific stations - 4,877 total; Argentina 601, Australia 243, Belarus 12, Belgium 40, Brazil 66, Bulgaria 22, Chile 433, China 166, Czechia 20, Ecuador 34, Finland 17, France 90, France and Italy jointly 80, Germany 104, India 113, Italy 120, Japan 130, South Korea 130, Netherlands 10, NZ 86, Norway 70, Peru 30, Poland 40, Russia 335, South Africa 80, Spain 98, Sweden 20, Ukraine 24, UK 196, US 1,399, Uruguay 68 (2017)winter (June-August) maximum capacity in scientific station - 1,036 total; Argentina 221, Australia 52, Brazil 15, Chile 114, China 32, France 24, France and Italy jointly 13, Germany 9, India 48, Japan 40, Netherlands 10, South Korea 25, NZ 11, Norway 7, Poland 16, Russia 125, South Africa 15, Ukraine 12, UK 44, US 215, Uruguay 8 (2017) research stations operated within the Antarctic Treaty area (south of 60 degrees south latitude) by National Antarctic Programs year-round stations - approximately 40 total; Argentina 6, Australia 3, Brazil 1, Chile 6, China 2, France 1, France and Italy jointly 1, Germany 1, India 2, Japan 1, Netherlands 1, South Korea 2, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 5, South Africa 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 2 (2017)a range of seasonal-only (summer) stations, camps, and refuges - Argentina, Australia, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Brazil, Chile, China, Czechia, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, South Korea, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, Poland, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Ukraine, UK, US, and Uruguay (2017)in addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research, the discovery of a large Antarctic ozone hole in the earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer) - first announced in 1985 - spurred the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987, an international agreement phasing out the use of ozone-depleting chemicals; the ozone layer prevents most harmful wavelengths of ultra-violet (UV) light from passing through the earth's atmosphere; ozone depletion has been shown to harm a variety of Antarctic marine plants and animals (plankton); in 2016, a gradual trend toward "healing" of the ozone hole was reported; since the 1990s, satellites have shown accelerating ice loss driven by ocean change; although considerable uncertainty remains, scientists are increasing our understanding and ability to model potential impacts of ice loss, conventional long form: noneconventional short form: Antarcticaetymology: name derived from two Greek words meaning "opposite to the Arctic" or "opposite to the north", Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic region is governed by a system known as the Antarctic Treaty system; the system includes: 1. the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, which establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica, 2.
Portland, Maine Public Schools, Who Is Us Bank Affiliated With Wells Fargo, Newton Patch Police Log, Country Club Grill Rock Hill, Sc, Articles W